Methods and apparatus for liquid crystal photoalignment

ABSTRACT

Liquid crystal photonic devices and microcavities filled with liquid crystal materials are becoming increasingly popular. These devices often present a challenge when it comes to creating a robust alignment layer in pre-assembled cells. Previous research on photo-definable alignment layers has shown that they have limited stability, particularly against subsequent light exposure. A method of infusing a dye into a microcavity to produce an effective photo-definable alignment layer is described, along with a method of utilizing a pre-polymer infused into the microcavity mixed with the liquid crystal to provide photostability. In this method, the polymer layer, formed under optical irradiation of liquid crystal cells, is effectively localized to a thin region near the substrate surface and thus provides a significant improvement in the photostability of the liquid crystal alignment. This versatile alignment layer method, which can be used in microcavities to displays, offers significant promise for new photonics applications.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

This application claims the priority benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) ofU.S. Application No. 62/046,706, entitled “Methods and Apparatus forLiquid Crystal Photoalignment,” and filed on Sep. 5, 2014, whichapplication is hereby incorporated by reference herein.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under Contract No.FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The government hascertain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

Liquid crystals (LCs) are materials that flow like liquid withcrystalline solid-like ordered molecules that align and orient along aparticular direction in the presence (or absence) of an electric field.These materials are widely used to manipulate the polarization andtransmission of light, including in liquid crystal displays (LCDs). Inan LCD, an LC layer is usually formed by aligning the LC material withrespect to a pair of substrates and sandwiching the substrates between apair of crossed polarizers. Applying an electric field to the LC layercauses the LC to align or twist, thereby allowing or blocking theincident light.

Typically, the LC material is aligned to the substrate with an alignmentlayer. The alignment layer is typically applied through a standardspin-coating method with a layer thickness on the order of severalhundred nanometers. This layer orients the LC molecules, which oftenhave an oblong shape, along a surface of the substrate, which istypically transparent glass or plastic. This type of alignment causesmost or all of the LC material to form a “single crystal” that can bere-oriented using an electric field. Absent this alignment layer, theliquid crystals would behave as a “polycrystalline” material; that is,the LC layer would form smaller LC domains, each containing moleculesaligning in an orientation different from those of other LC domains.Light passing through a polycrystalline LC layer undergoes non-uniformscattering and random variation in light transmission, producingdiffused, low-intensity lighting.

One of the most common ways to provide liquid crystal alignment is byfirst coating the surface with a thin film of polymer, such aspolyimide, and then rubbing the surface with a cloth. The cloth alignsthe polymer molecules on the surface in the rubbing direction; theliquid crystal in contact with the surface aligns to the polymermolecules. This approach has been quite effective, and thus widely usedin the LCD industry. Although this rubbing alignment technique isgenerally applicable to display technologies that work with large, flatdisplay platforms and substrates, it may not be applicable to particularLC applications that utilize non-planar, non-standard, and/or smallercavities to hold LC. In addition, the rubbing an alignment layer with acloth tends to generate particles, making it suitable for certainapplications.

Other techniques for aligning LC materials include a photoalignmenttechnique, which utilizes polarized light to form an alignment layer forLC materials. Photoalignment case be used in a variety of non-standardgeometries. For instance, photoalignment has been utilized in thecreation of a tunable microresonator in which the alignment layer isapplied through a standard spin-coating method. Great success has alsobeen shown in the use of photoalignment for tunable photonic crystalfibers (PCFs). In this case, the application of the photoalignment layervia spin-coating is not possible; instead, the fiber is filled with thephotoalignment solution through capillary action into the fibers, thenexcess solution is removed through a pressure gradient.

There are a number of different photoalignment techniques which can becategorized by the way in which the polarized irradiation causes surfaceanisotropy: the polarized light can result in polymerization withcross-linking along one direction (photo-polymerization), it can resultin degradation of molecules aligned along one direction(photo-degradation), it can result in a conformational change ofmolecules along one direction (photo-isomerization), or it can excitemolecules preferentially along one direction (photo-reorientation). Thelast two of these are most commonly accomplished using azo dyes whichoften absorb well in the ultraviolet (UV) or visible range. Whilephoto-isomerization is frequently criticized as having poor lifetime dueto the gradual relaxation of molecules from the cis- to the trans-state,photo-reorientation, depending on the relaxed molecular conformation, isa much more attractive choice because it can be excited preferentiallyalong the polarization. In addition to the lower irradiation energiescompared to both photo-polymerization and photo-degradation,photo-reorientation of azo dyes results in an alignment layer with anorder parameter which can be even higher than the liquid crystallineorder parameter.

In photo-reorientation, a dichroic dye, most often one containing azogroups, is irradiated with polarized light of an appropriate wavelength(i.e., one which is well absorbed by the dye). The probability that agiven dye molecule will absorb this incident irradiation is proportionalto cos² θ where θ is the angle between the incident polarization axisand the long axis of the dye molecule. Over time, this absorptionincreases the population of dye molecules aligned perpendicular to theincident polarization, where the probability of absorption is at or nearzero. After a sufficient exposure dose, the order parameter, which isdetermined by the absorption spectra of the dye both parallel andperpendicular to the polarization axis of the irradiating light, canexceed even that of the liquid crystals it is being used to align.

Anchoring energies of these layers have also been measured to be on thesame order of magnitude as the anchoring achieved through rubbedpolyimide alignment. This is particularly important in photonic deviceswhere light scattering from director fluctuations can degrade deviceperformance. Anchoring energies on the range of that observed frompolyimide and also for azo-dye alignment layers suppress thesefluctuations to an acceptable level in some devices. It should be notedthat director fluctuations are not a large concern for display devices.

Unfortunately, conventional photo-aligned layers tend to degrade whenexposed to light or heat, making them unsuitable for many applications,including displays and thermal sensing. Of particular importance forphotonic applications is stability under exposure to light of randompolarization states. Also, in the case of photonic devices, the lightintensity which the device is subjected to can be quite high, enhancingthe probability of device failure if the stability is low. It should benoted that for many applications of azodye alignment layers, the“rewriteability” of these materials is emphasized as a positiveattribute. However, in the case of photonic devices where the azodyesare desired for their high anchoring energy, rewriteability isproblematic.

SUMMARY

The inventors have recognized that materials called reactive mesogenscan be used to address the stability issues that plague conventionalphotoalignment layers. These materials can be applied as monomers andsubsequently exposed to UV light to become polymers. Further, in theirmonomeric state, reactive mesogens can exist in the liquid crystallinestate of matter, but then, after alignment by or to a photoalignmentlayer, can be polymerized to lock-in their order. Reactive mesogens havebeen applied by spin coating and have been shown to be effective instabilizing azo dye materials to thermal stress. They have also beenapplied as an additive to liquid crystals and shown to be effect instabilizing against electro-optic stress.

The inventors have also recognized that spin coating reactive mesogen isnot applicable to preformed cavity photonic devices and that usingreactive mesogen to stabilize liquid crystals against electro-opticstress does not necessarily apply to azo dye materials or the stabilityof alignment under optical stress. In contrast, the embodimentsdisclosed herein include photonic devices with preformed cavitiescontaining azo dye materials that are stable to exposure to light ofrelatively high intensity. Unlike conventional liquid crystal devices,which are formed by assembling two substrates coated with respectivealignment layers using spin coating, roller coating, meniscus coating,etc., inventive photonic devices may include “preformed cavities,” whichoften cannot be coated with alignment layers using conventional coatingtechniques.

More specifically, embodiments of the present technology include liquidcrystal (LC) cells and methods of making and using LC cells. An exampleLC cell includes a structure, such as a substrate, that defines amicrocavity; LC material disposed within the microcavity; a dichroic dyelayer (e.g., a layer of azo or anisotropic dye) disposed on an innersurface of the microcavity; and a polymerized layer (e.g., polymerizedreactive mesogen), disposed on and aligned with the dichroic dye layer,to align the LC material with respect to the dichroic dye layer. Thedichroic dye layer may have a thickness of up to about 10 nm and maycomprise Brilliant Yellow azo dye. The polymerized layer may have athickness of up to about 100 nm and may comprise RM257 or anothersuitable reactive mesogen.

Another embodiment includes a method of aligning liquid crystal materialto an inner surface of a microcavity. The method includes infusinganisotropic dye, such as an azo dye or a dye substantially similar to anazo compound, into the microcavity so as to coat the interior surface ofthe microcavity with the anisotropic dye. The anisotropic dye isilluminated with polarized light so as to form an anisotropic dye layeraligned with respect to the inner surface of the microcavity. Reactivemesogen, such as RM257, and liquid crystal material are infused into themicrocavity. The reactive mesogen is illuminated at a wavelengthselected to cause polymerization of the layer of reactive mesogenmaterial so as to form a polymerized reactive mesogen layer, which maybe <100 nm thick, that aligns the liquid crystal material with respectto the anisotropic dye layer.

In some cases, infusing the anisotropic dye comprises disposing themicrocavity in a dye solution comprising the anisotropic dye and asolvent. Once the dye solution has wicked into the microcavity, themicrocavity can be heated so as to evaporate the solvent.

Similarly, infusing the reactive mesogen and the liquid crystal materialmay comprise infusing a mixture of the reactive mesogen, the liquidcrystal material, and a photoinitiator into the microcavity. The mixtureof the reactive mesogen, the liquid crystal material, and thephotoinitiator can have a weight ratio of reactive mesogen to liquidcrystal material to photoinitiator of about 1.35 to 98.50 to 0.15. Ifdesired, the mixture of the reactive mesogen, the liquid crystalmaterial, and the photoinitiator may be mixed and/or heated prior tobeing infused into the microcavity. And the reactive mesogen may beallowed to separate from the liquid crystal material before beingilluminated.

In some examples, illuminating the reactive mesogen comprises applyingat least one voltage across at least a portion of the microcavity so asto lock in (fix, freeze, hold) alignment of the polymerized reactivemesogen layer with respect to the anisotropic dye layer. If desired, aphotoinitiator, such as Irgacure 651, may be infused into themicrocavity before illuminating the reactive mesogen with ultravioletlight.

The alignment may be varied by applying different voltages across themicrocavity. For example, a first voltage can be applied across a firstportion of the microcavity and a second voltage can be applied across asecond portion of the microcavity so as to create spatially varyingalignment of the anisotropic dye to the liquid crystal material. Forexample, the spatially varying alignment can be achieved by masking theexposure irradiation during the polymerization step, with one voltageapplied and a region of the cavity exposed. Next, a different voltagecan be applied and a different region exposed and so on in order toproduce spatially varying alignment.

It should be appreciated that all combinations of the foregoing conceptsand additional concepts discussed in greater detail below (provided suchconcepts are not mutually inconsistent) are contemplated as being partof the inventive subject matter disclosed herein. In particular, allcombinations of claimed subject matter appearing at the end of thisdisclosure are contemplated as being part of the inventive subjectmatter disclosed herein. It should also be appreciated that terminologyexplicitly employed herein that also may appear in any disclosureincorporated by reference should be accorded a meaning most consistentwith the particular concepts disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The skilled artisan will understand that the drawings primarily are forillustrative purposes and are not intended to limit the scope of theinventive subject matter described herein. The drawings are notnecessarily to scale; in some instances, various aspects of theinventive subject matter disclosed herein may be shown exaggerated orenlarged in the drawings to facilitate an understanding of differentfeatures. In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer tolike features (e.g., functionally similar and/or structurally similarelements).

FIG. 1A is a cross-sectional view of a microcavity disposed within asubstrate to hold liquid crystal material.

FIG. 1B is an illustration of the microcavity of FIG. 1A filled with amixture of materials in preparation for photoaligning a liquid crystalmaterial.

FIG. 1C is an illustration of the liquid crystal microcavity of FIGS. 1Aand 1B with photoalignment in place.

FIG. 1D is a top-view of the microcavity of FIG. 1C.

FIG. 1E is an exemplary illustration of a microcavity disposed on anelevated platform filled with liquid crystal and photoaligning materialsaccording to another embodiment.

FIG. 2A is an exemplary fabrication process flow diagram for creating aversatile alignment layer in a liquid crystal device via mixing reactivemesogen and liquid crystal prior to infusing into a microcavity.

FIG. 2B is an exemplary fabrication process flow diagram for creating aversatile alignment layer in a liquid crystal device via infusingreactive mesogen and then infusing liquid crystal into a microcavity.

FIG. 2C is an exemplary fabrication process flow diagram for forming anAzo dye layer in a microcavity.

FIG. 2D is a graph of the absorption spectrum of Brilliant Yellow dye.

FIG. 2E is a set of images showing the bright and dark states ofphotoaligned liquid crystal microcavities between crossed polarizerswhich operate in either reflective or transmissive mode.

FIG. 2F is an exemplary fabrication process flow diagram for form areactive mesogen layer within a microcavity.

FIG. 2G is a set of images showing the degrees of scattering throughplanar liquid crystal cells (ii, iii, and iv) with polymer-stabilizationlayers as compared to a liquid crystal cell without a polymerized layer(i).

FIG. 2H is a set of images showing the degradation of twisted cellsprepared with one photoaligned substrate and one rubbed-polyimidesubstrate, using pure BL006 (top).

FIG. 2I is a set of images showing twist cells prepared with onephotoaligned substrate and one rubbed-polyimide substrate, filled withRM257 in BL006 at 0.9% wt (top), 1.2% wt (middle), or 1.5% wt (bottom).

FIG. 3A shows a set of confocal micrographs of monomers' distributionalong the cell gap direction under different mixing conditions:Sonication, Vortex and Heat, and None.

FIGS. 3B-I, 3B-II, and 3B-III show a set of intensity profiles measuredalong a random vertical cross-section of each image shown in FIG. 3A.

FIG. 4A is an illustration of a filled microcavity containing a mixtureof liquid crystal materials and reactive mesogen monomers, whichpreferentially localizes near the microcavity surfaces.

FIG. 4B is an illustration of the filled microcavity in which the liquidcrystal is re-oriented under applied voltage.

FIG. 4C is an illustration of the filled microcavity in which monomersare crosslinked under ultraviolet (UV) illumination to lock in theorientation of liquid crystal.

FIG. 4D is an illustration of the filled microcavity with “oriented”liquid crystal (without an applied voltage).

FIG. 5A shows simulated dielectric data using surface concentrationX₀=0.08 and decay length ξ=0.2d and indicating that the polymer networkis evenly distributed throughout the cell.

FIG. 5B shows simulated dielectric data using surface concentrationX₀=0.8 and decay length ξ=0.02d and indicating that the polymer is moreconcentrated near the surface inside the cell.

FIG. 5C shows simulated dielectric data in which the polymer network isassumed to be infinitesimally thin (i.e., highly localized), indicatingits suitability as an alignment layer.

FIG. 6 shows a diagram of a microcavity prepared for testing surfacelocalization of reactive mesogen. Polyimide alignment layers on eachsubstrate were rubbed in opposite directions (as indicated).

FIG. 7 shows phase profiles for 5 μm planar cells filled with pureliquid crystal (LC) or LC with 1.5% wt RM257, which was polymerized ateither 0V or 20V.

FIG. 8A shows images of samples filled with pure BL006 (a) beforeexposure and after (b) 50 minutes, (c) 100 minutes, (d) 150 minutes, and(e) 200 minutes of exposure to about 20 mW/cm² polarized blue lightoriented at 45 degrees to the photoalignment axis.

FIG. 8B shows images of samples filled with 1.5% wt RM257 in BL006 shownbetween parallel (left) or crossed (right) polarizers (a) before and (b)after exposure to polarized blue light of about 20 mW/cm² for 21 daysand (c) before and (d) after exposure to unpolarized blue light of about120 mW/cm² for 21 days.

FIG. 9 shows transmission v. voltage (TV) curves of 5 μm samples withrubbed polyimide alignment on one substrate and BY photoalignment on theother substrate, aligned in a 90-degree twisted configuration.

FIG. 10 shows images of bright (a) and dark (b) state of reactivemesogen (RM)-stabilized photoaligned LC in 20-μm diameter microcavitieson transmissive substrate, between crossed polarizers, with imagemagnification of 50×.

FIG. 11A is a graph showing transmission vs. voltage for various cellspolymerized under low and high voltages, and under low and high UVexposures for 0.9% wt RM in BL006.

FIG. 11B is a graph showing transmission vs. voltage for various cellspolymerized under low and high voltages, and under low and high UVexposures for 1.2% wt RM in BL006.

FIG. 11C is a graph showing transmission vs. voltage for various cellspolymerized under low and high voltages, and under low and high UVexposures for 1.5% wt RM in BL006.

FIG. 12A is a set of images showing planar cells with 0.9% wt (leftpair), 1.2% wt (center pair), or 1.5% wt (right pair) RM257 in BL006polymerized at 60 Hz 100V.

FIG. 12B is a pair of images showing hybrid twist cells filled withBL006 baked in a vacuum oven at 100 C for 45 days (left) or 7 days(right).

FIGS. 13A and 13B show RM-stabilized planar cells between polarizedcrossed at +45 degrees and −45 degrees, respectively, after anadditional exposure, in the liquid crystal state, to blue-lightpolarized at 45 degrees.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As discussed above, conventional photoalignment involves forming a layerof photo-alignable material, such as a dichroic dye (a dye that absorbslight anisotropically, such as Brilliant yellow or another azo dye), onthe substrate surface. A thin coating of the azo dye is placed on theglass or electrode surface, and then blue polarized light is shined uponit. The polarized light aligns the azo dye molecules, which tend to beoblong, perpendicular to the polarization in a semi-permanent position.Unfortunately, azo dye layers are not stable enough for mostapplications as they tend to degrade when exposed to visible light.

Forming a layer of polymerized reactive mesogen (RM) or another suitablematerial over the azo dye layer effectively increases the photostabilityof the azo dye layer to create a more stable alignment layer. Thismaterial (e.g., the RM) forms a polymerized layer which, whenpolymerized, enforces the existing liquid crystalline alignment ratherthan disrupting it. In other words, acting as an intermediary, the RMaligns with the azo dye layer, and polymerizing of the RM subsequentfixes this alignment. The polymerized and aligned RM, in turn, alignsitself with the liquid crystal material. In other words, polymerizingthe RM after the photoalignment material (azo dye) has been properlyaligned “locks-in” the imposed alignment direction and protects the azodye from heat and light exposure. This alignment approach can be appliedafter almost all fabrication processing steps and can be utilized in anyapplication involving cell geometry with minimal fill-port access.

Using reactive mesogen in photoaligning the azo dye can be applied tonon-planar surfaces, such as the inner wall surfaces insidemicrocavities. Reactive mesogen itself dissolves in liquid crystalmaterials at low concentrations, but it can become slightly immisciblein the base liquid crystal when the RM polymerizes. In some cases, theprocess for mixing the reactive mesogen with the liquid crystal can becontrolled such that the reactive mesogen deposits out of solution ontothe microcavity surface(s). When the RM polymerizes, the polymer networkusually agglomerates at the surface because it is much more concentratedthan the bulk liquid crystal/reactive mesogen mixture; RM, however, haslimited polymerization in the bulk liquid crystal/reactive mesogenmixture because the mixture is usually diluted. Moreover, photostabilitytests (details of which will be described in later sections) have shownthe reactive mesogen on the photoalignment dye layer is very stable overtemperature and exposure compared to samples without the reactivemesogen.

RM-stabilized photo-alignment layers can be used in a variety ofemerging photonics applications and devices, including but not limitedto ring resonators, lenses, and photonic crystal fibers, and uncooledthermal imagers. These imagers comprise high performance, large format,arrays of thermal imaging pixels to detect long wavelength infrared(LWIR) light. In this particular application, aligning the LC materialinside micron-sized thermal imaging pixels can no longer be applicableusing conventional rubbing technique, as it will be exceeding difficultto apply rubbing alignment technique to any miniature platforms at themicron scale. Other applications include curved displays, planardisplays, etc. For example, in large-area applications, the azo dye andRM could be sprayed onto the substrate and illuminated as describedbelow to align the azo dye and polymerize the RM.

The following sections describe techniques for creating photoalignmentlayers by infiltrating a dissolved photo-definable dye intomicrocavities through a single micron-sized opening. Also presented is aprocess to stabilize the photoalignment layer by infiltration into themicrocavity of a RM that has been pre-mixed into host LC materials. Thelayers generated by the process disclosed in this application arerelatively thin (e.g., <100 nm thick) and do not exhibit a large degreeof light scattering.

I. Stable Photoalignment of Liquid Crystals in Confined Microcavities

A technique is described herein for introducing a stable azo dyephotoalignment to confined microcavities with a single entry/exit port.In this method, the azo dye photoalignment layer is introduced to thecell and illuminated with polarized light to form a first alignmentlayer. A polymer network is then introduced into the cell in the form ofa reactive mesogen. In some cases, the reactive mesogen is mixed at lowconcentration with the liquid crystal, then phase separated to thesurfaces and polymerized to form a layer of polymerized reactive mesogenthat aligns the liquid crystal to the azo dye layer. This simple methodoffers high stability against subsequent exposure to both heat andlight. Beneficially, this method also avoids the requirements of strictprocess control; both the photoalignment dye and the photoinitiator forthe polymerization process may absorb in the same wavelength range, insome cases without degradation of the process or decrease in yield.

Previously, the infiltration of reactive mesogen (RM) into the cellalong with the liquid crystal has been proposed for creatingcustomizable pretilt which can be patterned throughout the cell.However, the RM used to create the pretilt modified a well-known stablealignment layer (polyimide), not an azo dye layer, so the RM was notexpected to stabilize or improve the quality of a weak or easilydegraded or poor quality alignment layer.

Stable alignment has many advantages over previous alignment methods.These advantages include low cost, simple manufacturing without the needfor expensive and difficult-to-control rubbing processes, no hightemperature bakes that limit substrate material selection, and theability to photopattern the alignment axis and pretilt.

The process of creating a stable azo dye photoalignment layer inconfined microcavities may begin with the application of the azo dyelayer. A dye solution is prepared in which the azo or other dichroic dyeis mixed into an appropriate solvent at low concentrations. Themicrocavities may be fully submerged in this solution and allowed tosoak; this soaking process may provide sufficient time for the dyesolution to fully infiltrate the cavities, which will depend on bothcavity volume and the area of the entry/exit port. Vacuum-filling of thecavities could also be used if there is no concern about evaporation ofthe solvent in vacuum.

Next, the microcavity sample is removed from the solution and residue onouter surface removed. The sample should then be immediately placed inan oven or on a heat stage at or near the boiling point of the solventto force quick evaporation of all solvent and deposition of a uniformdye layer through the microcavities. From this point, processing of thephotoalignment layer should continue in the typical fashion; the sampleis irradiated with polarized light of an appropriate wavelength toeffectively align the dye layer.

A liquid crystal mixture is also prepared containing a low concentrationof reactive mesogen along with a photoinitiator. If preferred, a thermalinitiator may also be used. Appropriate selection of liquid crystal andreactive mesogen may ensure that the reactive mesogen in the liquidcrystal will phase separate as desired.

The mixture is then heated to above the isotropic transition temperatureof the liquid crystal and mixed using either vortex mixing orsonication. Once mixed, the solution can be introduced into the cell inany desired manner. The mixture may then be phase separated, allowingthe reactive mesogen to aggregate on the cell surfaces. This can be doneby, e.g., by simply allowing the mixture time to separate. However, ifdesired, a low frequency, high voltage can be used to assist in drivingthe reactive mesogen to the cell surfaces. In this case, the liquidcrystalline and reactive mesogen materials may be chosen such that ionsin the solution will preferentially associate with the reactive mesogenrather than the liquid crystal; the current will assist in driving thosemolecules associated with ions to the surface.

After phase separation, the cell is exposed to an appropriate wavelengthto activate the photoinitiator (or temperature to activate the thermalinitiator). The use of low intensity for this exposure is recommended toallow slow migration of the reactive mesogen as the polymer networkbegins to form and to avoid any negative effects on the underlyingalignment layer. This polymerization can occur either with or withoutapplied voltage; the application of voltage results in a liquid crystalpretilt.

With a sufficient polymer network formed on the substrate surfaces, thealignment originally imposed by the photoalignment layer (the azo dyelayer) is locked in by the polymer network (the polymerized RM layer)with or without additional pretilt. Any condition which would causedegradation of the photoalignment layer will now not cause degradationof the liquid crystal alignment in the cell or microcavities.

II. Photoalignment in Microcavities Microcavity

FIG. 1A shows an exemplary microcavity structure 100 disposed in asubstrate 110, with inner surfaces 114 and a single entry/exit port 112.(Other embodiments of the microcavity may have two or more ports for useas separate entry and ports). The substrate 110 in FIG. 1A can be anymaterials, including but not limited to silicon, silicon oxide, siliconnitride, etc. Depending on the materials of the substrate 110, themicrocavity 100 within the substrate 110 can be produced usingconventional photolithography techniques including, but not limited towet-etching; dry-etching; sputter etching; reactive ion etching (RIE),including plasma, radio frequency, and deep RIE; vapor-phase etching;etc. In some embodiments, the shapes of the microcavity 100 can be asfollowed: the cross-sectional shape of the microcavity 100 can includecircle, oval, triangle, square, rectangle, trapezium, diamond, rhombus,parallelogram, pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon, or any otherpolygonal or 2-dimensional shapes. Possible volumetric shapes of themicrocavity 100 include, but not limited to rectangular prism (like amatch-box type aspect ratio), triangular prism, pentagonal prism,hexagonal prism, and any polygonal prism, pyramid, tetrahedron, wedge,cube, sphere, cone, cylinder, torus, and any possible aspect ratio ofellipsoids and ellipsoidal dimensions.

The dimensions of the microcavity 100 can range from about 10 μm toabout 1 mm (e.g., about 10 μm, about 15 μm, about 20 μm, about 25 μm,about 30 μm, about 35 μm, about 40 μm, about 45 μm, about 50 μm, about55 μm, about 60 μm, about 65 μm, about 70 μm, about 75 μm, about 80 μm,about 85 μm, about 90 μm, about 95 μm, about 100 μm, about, 120 μm,about 140 μm, about 160 μm, about 180 μm, about 200 μm, about 250 μm,about 300 μm, about 350 μm, about 400 μm, about 450 μm, about 500 μm,about 550 μm, about 600 μm, about 650 μm, about 700 μm, about 750 μm,about 800 μm, about 850 μm, about 900 μm, about 950 μm, and about 1000μm).

Similarly, the size of the port 112 can range from about 1 μm to about500 μm, depending on the size of the microcavity 100 (e.g., about 1 μm,about 2 μm, about 3 μm, about 4 μm, about 5 μm, about 6 μm, about 7 μm,about 8 μm, about 9 μm, about 10 μm, about 15 μm, about 20 μm, about 25μm, about 30 μm, about 35 μm, about 40 μm, about 45 μm, about 50 μm,about 55 μm, about 60 μm, about 65 μm, about 70 μm, about 75 μm, about80 μm, about 85 μm, about 90 μm, about 95 μm, about 100 μm, about, 120μm, about 140 μm, about 160 μm, about 180 μm, about 200 μm, about 250μm, about 300 μm, about 350 μm, about 400 μm, about 450 μm, about 500μm). The shape of the opening of port 112 (2-dimensional shape) caninclude circle, oval, triangle, square, rectangle, trapezium, diamond,rhombus, parallelogram, pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon, or anyother 2-dimensional shape.

Since the microcavity 100 is disposed in the substrate 110, the port 112of the microcavity 100 can be disposed just about anywhere on or withinthe substrate 110, depending on the position of other layers orcomponents. The port 112 extends between an inner surface 114 of themicrocavity 100 and an outer surface of the microcavity 100, such as thetop surface, the side-wall, or even the bottom surface (if accessible)of the microcavity 100. The port 112 can be positioned at the center oroff-centered on any of the surfaces 114. The port 112 can extendperpendicular to the inner surface 114 or possibly be tilted withrespect to inner surface 114. If the microcavity 100 includes anoptional second port, it can be also located and positioned as describedabove.

A microcavity can be etched in a substrate (e.g., silicon, fused silica,etc.) as follows. A first dielectric material (e.g. silicon dioxide,silicon nitride, etc.) is deposited on the substrate to form a layerthat is about 50 nm to 300 nm thick. Next, a sacrificial layer (e.g.,molybdenum) with a thickness of 0.5 to 3 microns is deposited on thedielectric layer. A second dielectric layer (e.g. silicon dioxide,silicon nitride) with a thickness of about 50 nm to 300 nm is depositedon the sacrificial layer. A fill hole (e.g., 0.5 to 2 microns square) orarray of fill holes is defined photolithographically in the seconddielectric layer. The second dielectric layer is etched (e.g., with adry etch), and the molybdenum sacrificial layer is removed via the fillhole(s), e.g., with hydrogen peroxide etch, to form one or morecavities. Then the cavity or cavities are filled with liquid crystalmaterials.

Microcavity Filled with Liquid Crystal and Photoalignment Materials

FIGS. 1B and 1C show the microcavity 100 in two different stages of aprocess for creating a photo-alignment layer for liquid crystalmaterials in the microcavity 100. The first stage of the alignment asshown in FIG. 1B is the microcavity 100 filled with a mixture 130 ofreactive mesogen 140 and liquid crystal material 160. At this stage, theinner surface 114 is at least partially coated with an azo dye layer 120and photoaligned prior to the introducing of the mixture 130 into themicrocavity 100. The single entry/exit port 112 is shown capped with acapping layer 190, which may be formed by spinning on CYTP(perofluoropolymer) or defined through photolithography.

The Azo dye layer 120 includes oblong azo dye molecules aligned in aparticular direction (e.g., into and out of the page). Suitablematerials for the azo dye layer 120 include, but are not limited toBrilliant Yellow. Without being restrictive, sukphonic azo dyes areparticularly suited for this type of photoalignment. Other suitable dyesinclude SD1 and Chrysophenine.

The Azo dye layer 120 was first photoaligned and the thickness obtainedafter alignment ranges from about 1 nm to about 10 nm (e.g., about 1 nm,about 2 nm, about 3 nm, about 4 nm, about 5 nm, about 6 nm, about 7 nm,about 8 nm, about 9 nm, or about 10 nm).

Likewise, the reactive mesogen 140 can be any reactive mesogen,including but not limited to RM257, RM84, etc. Similarly, the liquidcrystal 160 used in this experiment is an exemplary material and it canbe any other liquid crystal material including, but not limited toliquid crystal materials for which the RM is sufficiently insoluble soas to separate at the substrate surface (e.g., when not applying avoltage). In this stage, the RM 140 and the LC 160 are mixed to form themixture 130, then infiltrated into the entire microcavity 100. Thecapping layer 190 can include, but is not limited to cytop, silicondioxide, etc.

The second stage of the photoalignment process as shown in FIG. 1C isthe microcavity 100 filled with the materials shown in FIG. 1B. In FIG.1C, however, the RM 140 has been “photo-processed” to achieve thedesired materials properties after certain processes, and the details ofthese fabrication processes will be further described in the followingsection. More specifically, in the process stage as shown in FIG. 1C,the RM 140 has been separated to localize near the interface of the Azodye layer 120 and polymerized to form a polymerized RM layer 142, whichis aligned to the azo dye layer 120. The thickness of the polymerized RMlayer 142 can range from about 1 nm to about 100 nm (e.g., about 1 nm,about 2 nm, about 3 nm, about 4 nm, about 5 nm, about 6 nm, about 7 nm,about 8 nm, about 9 nm, about 10 nm, about 15 nm, about 20 nm, about 25nm, about 30 nm, about 35 nm, about 40 nm, about 45 nm, about 50 nm,about 55 nm, about 60 nm, about 65 nm, about 70 nm, about 75 nm, about80 nm, about 85 nm, about 90 nm, about 100 nm,). The remaining LCmaterial 160 now occupies the rest of the microcavity 110 and is alignedto the polymerized RM layer 142.

FIG. 1D is a top view of the microcavity 100, which shows a top view ofthe entirety of the microcavity 100 disposed inside the substrate 110with the inner most circle representing the single entry/exit port 112.

FIG. 1E is another exemplary embodiment of the microcavity 100 in adifferent environment. Whereas FIGS. 1A-1D show the microcavity 100disposed within the substrate 110, FIG. 1E shows an exemplary embodimentin which the microcavity 100 is supported above a substrate 115 byseveral thermal legs 117. The thermal legs 117 provide thermal andelectrical isolation of the microcavity 100 from the substrate 115.

Fabrication Process Flow for RM-Stabilized Photoalignment inMicrocavities

FIG. 2A shows an exemplary fabrication process flow for using reactivemesogen to stabilize photoalignment in a microcavity. The first step 200a in the fabrication process is the creation of a microcavity with asingle entry/exit port. Once the microcavity with a single entry/exitport is obtained, an anisotropic dye, such as an Azo dye, can be infusedinto the microcavity so as to coat the interior surface of themicrocavity with the anisotropic dye in process step 222 a. In step 224a, the anisotropic dye is illuminated with linearly or ellipticallypolarized light so as to align the anisotropic dye with respect to theinterior surface of the microcavity. In step 256 a, reactive mesogen andliquid crystal materials are infused into the microcavity. In step 258a, the reactive mesogen is allowed to separate from the liquid crystalmaterial. This can be accomplished by storing the microcavity in thedark (to prevent photodegradation of the azo dye layer) until thereactive mesogen has accumulated on the azo dye layer. Step 280 a inthis fabrication process is to illuminate the layer of reactive mesogenat a wavelength selected to cause polymerization of the layer ofreactive mesogen material so as to form a layer of polymerized reactivemesogen between, and aligned with, the anisotropic dye layer and theliquid crystal material. In other words, the polymerized reactivemesogen aligns the liquid crystal material to the anisotropic dye layer.

FIG. 2B shows another exemplary fabrication process flow for usingreactive mesogen to stabilize photoalignment in a microcavity. In thisprocess, the first step 200 b also starts with creation of a microcavitywith a single entry/exit port. In step 222 b, which is similar to step222 a of the process shown in FIG. 2A, once the microcavity with asingle entry/exit port is obtained, an anisotropic dye, such as an Azodye, is infused into the microcavity so as to coat the interior surfaceof the microcavity with the anisotropic dye. In step 224 b, theanisotropic dye is then illuminated with a polarized light so as to forma layer of anisotropic dye aligned with respect to the interior surfaceof the microcavity. In step 246 b, the reactive mesogen is infused intothe microcavity. This step is different from step 256 a (FIG. 2A) inthat it includes infusion of the reactive mesogen without any liquidcrystal material whereas step 256 a instructs to infuse both thereactive mesogen and the liquid crystal material. Following step 246 bis step 268 b, which involves infusing liquid crystal material into themicrocavity after infusing the reactive mesogen in the step 246 b. Notethat since infusing reactive mesogen separately into the microcavityallows direct localization of RM onto the underlying anisotropic dye,there is no need to allow the RM to separate from the LC material. Afterall the materials have been infused into the microcavity, themicrocavity is illuminated in step 280 b so that the reactive mesogenpolymerizes to form an alignment layer that aligns the liquid crystal tothe azo dye layer.

Infusing Anisotropic Azo Dye Materials in Confined Microcavities

FIG. 2C illustrates a process of creating a stable azo dyephotoalignment layer in confined microcavities in greater detail. Thefirst step 200 c in the fabrication process is the creation of amicrocavity with a single entry/exit port. Brilliant Yellow (BY) dye ismixed into anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide at 0.5% by weight. Forexample, the mixture may be vortexed for one minute to create a uniformdye solution. The microcavity is then submerged in this dye solution andallowed to soak, e.g., for 15 minutes (step 222 c). Once removed fromthe dye solution, the top surfaces of the microcavity are cleaned andimmediately baked at 150° C. for at least 15 minutes to evaporatesolvent out of the microcavity (step 223 c). In step 224 c, the azo dyeis illuminated with blue or UV light (e.g., with a Royal Blue LED with acentral wavelength of 447 nm). The intensity of this light at the samplesurface may be about 50 mW/cm² and the irradiation time may be at least5 minutes.

FIG. 2D is a plot of the absorption spectrum of Brilliant Yellow azodye. Brilliant Yellow has a somewhat wide absorption spectrum whichallows for reorientation utilizing wavelengths ranging from high UV(such as 365 nm) or blue light, as shown in FIG. 2D. As a result, theazo dye absorbs relatively strongly in step 224 c of the process shownin FIG. 2C.

One measure of alignment quality is the order parameter of the azo dyelayer. The order parameter is determined by using a spectrophotometer tomeasure the absorption spectra of the dye both parallel andperpendicular to the polarization axis of the irradiating light. Themaximum absorbances from these spectra, A_(μ) and A_(⊥) respectively,are then utilized to calculate the two-dimensional order parameterS_(2D) according to EQN. 1:

$\begin{matrix}{S_{2D} = {\frac{A_{||} - A_{\bot}}{A_{||} - A_{\bot}}.}} & \left( {{EQN}.\mspace{14mu} 1} \right)\end{matrix}$

The absolute value of this order parameter represents the degree towhich the dye is aligned, with values ranging from 0 to 1.0, with 1.0representing perfect order and 0 representing complete disorder.

It may be difficult or impractical to measure absorption spectra inconfined microcavities. However, measuring similar photoalignment layersprepared utilizing 1% wt Brilliant Yellow in dimethylformamide (DMF)applied to glass via spin-coating gives order parameters in the range of0.8, indicating very strong order of the dye molecules. And liquidcrystals vacuum-filled (in the isotropic state) into the microcavitiesprepared with azo dye layers as shown in FIG. 2C exhibit very strong,uniform dark and bright states, as shown in FIG. 2E, which suggests thatthe azo dye layers in the cavities also have relatively high orderparameters (e.g., about 0.8 or higher). More specifically, FIG. 2E showsbright (201 e and 202 e) and dark (203 e and 204 e) states ofphotoaligned LC microcavities displayed between crossed polarizers whichoperate in either reflective (201 e and 203 e) or transmissive (202 eand 204 e) mode. Cavity diameter is ˜12 μm for 201 e and 203 e (toprow), and ˜20 μm for 202 e and 204 e (bottom row). Bright and darkimages for each in FIG. 2E are taken with equal exposure.

Infusing Reactive Mesogen in Confined Microcavities

The fabrication process described in FIG. 2F is an exemplary processingmethod for infusing reactive mesogen into microcavities. Step 256 f ofthe process begins with creating a mixture of reactive mesogen (e.g.,RM257 mixed with 10% wt of photoinitiator, such as Irgacure 651) inliquid crystal BL006. The RM/photoinitiator mixture was either 0.9% wt,1.2% wt, or 1.5% wt in the LC BL006. In step 257 f, this mixture isheated to 125° C., then vortexed for 3 minutes to create a somewhatuniform mixture. Note that a 1.5% wt of mixture can be used for a 2-μmthick microcavity and a 3.0% wt of mixture can be used for a 5-μm thickmicrocavity (258 f). Generally, the percentage of RM should be lowenough to avoid undesired light scattering and high enough so as tostabilize the surface. After vortexing, the mixture is infused into themicrocavity and allowed to cool. The microcavity is then stored (e.g.,in a dark, airtight container overnight) to allow phase separation ofthe RM to the cell surfaces in step 259 f of FIG. 2F. In step 280 f, thecells are polymerized by exposure to an unpolarized Mightex high powerUV LED source (λ=365 nm) at ˜3.5 mW/cm². This results in a polymerizedRM layer on the substrate surfaces that is thin enough not to scatterincident light.

Experimental Assessment of Polymerized Reactive Mesogen Layers

FIG. 2G shows macroscale liquid crystal cells that include polymerizedRM layers prepared using the process shown in FIG. 2F. These cellseither had a rubbed-polyimide layer on both substrates and wereconfigured in an untwisted planar orientation or had rubbed-polyimide onone substrate and a spun 2% wt Brilliant Yellow photoalignment layer onthe other and were configured with a 55-degree twist. This low twistangle is utilized to assure the handedness of the twist was identical inall cells. Planar cells are utilized to observe scattering while twistcells are utilized for stability testing (described below).

The images shown in FIG. 2G were acquired by placing the samplesdirectly in front of a camera viewing text on a screen 2 feet away. Apicture through the cell of this screen was taken for each sample andcompared to a planar sample filled with pure BL006 liquid crystalmaterial. The degree of scattering in each is characterized as eithermajor, minor, or none.

TABLE 1 Scattering grade for each prepared cell. RM Concentration (%)Scattering? (A/I/N) 0.9 I 0.9 N 0.9 A 1.2 N 1.2 I 1.2 A 1.5 N 1.5 N 1.5N

Table 1 shows a number of cells prepared and the degree of scatteringpresent, with A=major, I=minor, N=none. The evidence of scattering ismixed in samples prepared with either 0.9% wt or 1.2% wt RM/LC solution,but there is no scattering in cells prepared with 1.5% wt RM/LCsolution.

Stability testing of the twisted cells prepared with one substratecoated with a rubbed polyimide alignment layer and the other with aspun-on Brilliant Yellow (BY) photoalignment layer was performed. The BYwas applied by mixing the dye at 2.0% wt in DMF, then vortexing for 30seconds to create a uniform solution. The glass was cleaned viaultrasonic and UV/O₃ cleaning just prior to application of the dyesolution, which was passed through a 1 μm filter as it was applied. Theentire substrate was coated and the sample spun at 1500 rpm for 30 s tocreate an even dye layer coating. The substrate was then baked at 120 Cfor 40 minutes to evaporate any remaining solvent. These substrates werethen exposed to polarized blue light at ˜50 mW/cm² for 7 minutes usingthe same exposure setup used to expose the microcavity samples.

Samples were then assembled in twisted configuration at 55 degrees andfilled with BL006 liquid crystal which was either pure or mixed withRM257 and a photoinitiator then polymerized as described above.

For photostability testing, samples were exposed to the same blue LEDsetup λ_(max)=447 nm) used to align them, except they were nowirradiated with unpolarized light at either 3 mW/cm² or 15 mW/cm² (10mW/cm² for pure BL006 samples). Samples containing pure BL006 wereexposed for a total of 24 hours while samples containing apolymer-stabilization layer were exposed for a total of 48 hours. Table2 shows the total irradiation dose for each of these exposureconditions.

TABLE 2 Total irradiation dose for the various exposure conditions usedfor photostability trials. Type Intensity (mW/cm²) Time (hr) Dose(J/cm²) Pure BL006 3 24 259.2 Pure BL006 10 24 864 RM/BL006 3 48 518.4RM/BL006 15 48 2592

The twisted cell configuration was utilized to provide fast visualdetermination of the degradation of photoalignment layers. When the cellwas initially fabricated, the anchoring energies of the rubbed-polyimideand of the photoalignment layer were similar, so the twistedconfiguration was as designed. As the photoalignment layer degraded,rubbed-polyimide alignment direction dominated in the cell and thealignment became planar instead of twisted.

Samples containing pure BL006 showed complete degradation after the24-hour exposure period; the cells when viewed between parallelpolarizers exhibit a planar rather than twisted alignment, as shown inFIG. 2H; this is regardless of the intensity of the irradiation.

A total of 46 samples across all RM concentrations were tested. FIG. 2Ishows a representative selection of these samples after 48 hours ofexposure to either 3 mW/cm² or 15 mW/cm² (shown between parallelpolarizers). The cells prepared with 0.9% wt RM showed degradation after48 hours, though it is a significant improvement from the pure BL006liquid crystals samples. All samples prepared using either 1.2% wt or1.5% wt RM solution remain in a highly uniform twisted configuration;the polymer layers in these samples are sufficient to offer strongstabilization of the alignment against subsequent photoexposure. Thetwist angles of all samples were measured after this photoexposure; allcells which remained in a twisted configuration showed no loss of twistangle, within experimental error.

For thermal stability testing, similar twist cells were utilized withrubbed-polyimide on one substrate and BY photoalignment on the other,prepared alongside the photostability twist samples. These samples werefilled with pure BL006. The samples were then baked in a vacuum oven at100° C. for a total of 2 weeks (about 340 hours). No visible degradationin alignment or loss in twist angle was observed in these cells afterthis baking. The thermal stability of the photoalignment layer on itsown is sufficiently strong.

III. Surface Localization of Reactive Mesogen IllustratingSurface-Localization

To illustrate surface localization of reactive mesogen, bulk cells (onthe order of inches) were fabricated with reactive mesogen (RM84) andmeasured to estimate the conditions for creating a thin and stablealignment layer in microcavities. Confocal microscope images were takenusing 0.08% weight concentration of Fluorescein Dimethacrylate, a dyewhich selectively associates with the RM in the test cells (thewavelength used was 460 nm, which is well absorbed by the dye). Thismethod was used to assess the effect of mixing on the diffusion of RM tothe cell surfaces.

FIG. 3A shows confocal images of the bulk cells fabricated with RMmonomers and their distribution and concentration of the dye (andtherefore, the RM) along the cell gap direction under different mixingconditions. For all of the images, the bright areas represent the moreconcentrated areas of dye. The top image shows the monomer distributiononly using sonication. The middle image shows the distribution ofmonomers after vortexing and heating, and the bottom image shows thedistribution of monomers without using any particular mixing approach.

FIGS. 3B-I, 3B-II, and 3B-III show plots of the intensity variationalong a vertical cross-section of each image in FIG. 3A, indicating thedistribution and concentration of the dye in the LC cell show that, forvery weak mixing, RM diffuses out of the LC and is localized at thesurface rather symmetrically. However, both sonication and no mixingresulted in non-symmetric distribution of RM to the substrates surfaces(worst in the case of no mixing) and a lower surface concentration of RMoverall (reduction in the maximum measured dye intensity near thesurfaces). Through control of mixing of the RM into the LC, the RM layeris concentrated on the surface to provide stabilization of thephoto-definable layer.

Simulated Surface-Localization

Simulated studies show that the polymer network density gradient normalto the plane of the cell can affect the surface-localized polymer layer,and thus affect photoalignment. The LC director configuration in thecell, given a particular applied voltage, was determined numerically byutilizing the free energy density of the system, given by EQN. 2,

$\begin{matrix}{{f_{d} = {{\frac{k_{11}}{2}\left( {\nabla{\cdot \hat{n}}} \right)^{2}} + {\frac{k_{22}}{2}\left( {{\hat{n} \cdot \nabla} \times \hat{n}} \right)^{2}} + {\frac{k_{33}}{2}\left( {\hat{n} \times {\nabla{\times \hat{n}}}} \right)^{2}} - {\frac{W}{2}\left( {\hat{n} \cdot {\hat{n}}_{o}} \right)^{2}} - {\frac{1}{2}\left( {D \cdot E} \right)^{2}}}},} & \left( {{EQN}.\mspace{14mu} 2} \right)\end{matrix}$

where k₁₁, k₂₂, and k₃₃ are the splay, twist, and bend elastic constantsof the LC, respectively, D is the electric displacement, E is theelectric field, n is the LC director at a particular point, n_(o) is thepreferred direction of the director (at points along the polymernetwork), and W is the effective anchoring strength of the LC directorin contact with the polymer (W=0 in regions without polymer). Thepreferred director, n_(o), is determined by the director orientation atthe time of polymerization, where the orientation is imprinted onto thepolymer network, illustrated in FIGS. 4A-4D and explained below. If thesample is polymerized (e.g., by exposure to UV light) with no appliedvoltage, then the polymer network will lock in a planar orientation.However, if a voltage is applied during the polymerization process, thenthe tilted director configuration will be locked in, even after thevoltage has been turned off.

The effect of the polymer distribution through the cell was modeled bymaking the anchoring parameter, W, effectively proportional to a polymerdistribution given by EQN. 3,

X(z)=X ₀(e ^(−z/ξ) +e ^(−(d−z)/ξ)),  (EQN. 3)

where X₀ is considered as the polymer concentration at the substratesurface, d is the cell thickness, and ξ is the length scale for thedecay of the concentration going away from the surface.

FIG. 4A shows a microcavity 400 within the substrate 410 filled withphotoaligned azo dye (not shown) and a mixture 430 of RM 440 and LC 460.As shown in FIG. 4A, a thin layer of RM 440 has localized closer to theinner surfaces 414 of the microcavity 400, leaving the LC 460 in thebulk of the microcavity 400.

FIG. 4B shows the microcavity 400 under an applied electric field 470.In this stage, the LC 460 molecules in the bulk (center) portion of themicrocavity 400 align with the applied polarizing electric field 470,although the orientation of the LC 460 molecules close to or intermixedwith the RM 440 concentrated near the inner surfaces 414 may remainunchanged. The RM 440 (and possibly some LC 460) closer to the innersurfaces 414 remains aligned with the photoaligned azo dye (not shown).

FIG. 4C shows the microcavity 400 under UV illumination 480. In thisstage, the UV illumination 480 causes the RM 440 molecules polymerize,forming a polymerized RM layer 442 that locks-in the orientation of theLC 460 molecules intermixed within its network.

FIG. 4D shows the microcavity 400 after the applied electric field 470and UV illumination 480 are removed. It shows microcavity 400 with LC460 aligned to the polymerized RM layer 442.

FIGS. 5A-5C show simulated dielectric data versus voltage for differentsurface concentrations and decay lengths. In FIG. 5A, at a surfaceconcentration of X₀=0.08 and decay length of =0.2d, the plot indicatesthat the polymer network is evenly distributed throughout the cell. Onthe other hand, FIG. 5B shows that for a surface concentration X₀=0.8and decay length ξ=0.02d, the polymer is more concentrated closer to thesurface inside the cell. These plots show the effect of the values of X₀and ξ where the polymer orientation, also equal to n_(o), is determinedby the director distribution in the cell with 10 V RMS applied. Notethat these plots show dielectric constant versus voltage—the dielectricconstant was calculated directly based on the simulated directorconfiguration. It can be seen that, if the polymer is quite evenlydistributed through the cell, the main effect is to see a shift in thethreshold voltage of the device (the voltage below which no change indielectric constant has occurred). However, if the polymer is moreconcentrated on the surface, one effect is a shift in the saturationvoltage of the device (the voltage above which the change in dielectricconstant has saturated).

On the other hand, when a simplified model was used, it was assumed thatthe effect of the polymer was restricted to an infinitesimally thinlayer (effectively a monolayer). This thin layer at the surface thatacts as an alignment layer with a pretilt (no polymer network exists inthe liquid-crystal-filled region of the cell and the polymer interactionterm is dropped), the effect on the dielectric constant vs. voltagecurve is simulated as shown in FIG. 5C. Here, there is little effect onthe curve where the polymer is cured at 0 V. One effect is to lower thezero-volt value of the capacitance for the case where the cell is curedat high voltage. The zero-volt value of the capacitance will be relatedto the induced pretilt that results from the given value of the appliedvoltage, with higher voltages and/or higher polymer concentrationsyielding values of the zero volt capacitance that are higher,approaching the saturation value with the effective pretilt of 90degrees.

Measured Surface-Localization

Transmission vs. voltage (TV) curves on cells prepared similarly to thereferenced simulations discussed in the previous section are utilized inthe measurements. Phase vs. voltage for each sample shows similarbehavior to the dielectric constant vs. voltage curves; a change in thezero volt phase indicates an increase in the pretilt of the sample whilea change in the threshold voltage indicates that the polymer network isnot surface localized and exists in the bulk.

FIG. 6 shows a liquid crystal cell 600 used to measure the surfacelocalization of the polymerized RM. For the experiments, 5 μm thickcells with at least a 1 cm×1 cm active area were prepared with rubbedpolyimide alignment layers on the substrate surfaces (each substrate wasrubbed in the opposite direction). Before infiltrating the cells, RM257was mixed with a photoinitiator Irgacure 651 in which the photoinitiatorwas at 10% concentration by weight. This was then added to the LC BL006such that the RM257/photoinitiator was at 1.5% concentration by weight.This mixture was then heated to 125° C. and vortexed for 3 minutes toproduce a uniform mixture. Cells were then infused with either the 1.5%wt RM257/BL006 mixture or pure BL006. The RM/LC cells were then storedovernight in dark conditions to allow for separation of the RM to thesubstrate surfaces. Next, these samples were polymerized using 20minutes of exposure to about 3.5 mW/cm² UV light (λ=365 nm) provided bya Mightex collimated UV LED light source. The cell was eitherpolymerized at 0V or 20V (1 kHz AC).

Once cells were polymerized, TV curves were obtained by placing thesample between two polarizers. TV curves were taken with both crossedand parallel polarizers; in both cases, the cell was oriented with thealignment at 45 degrees to the input polarizer. A broadband Oriel fiberoptic illuminator was used as a light source and an interference filter(2\, =633 nm) was utilized to produce monochromatic light. To neglecttransmission losses for phase calculations, the TV curve was adjusted sothat the maximum and minimum transmission through the cell (i.e.,detected voltage) were taken to be equivalent to a transmission of 1 or0, respectively.

To produce a plot more comparable to the CV curves, each set of TVcurves was further converted into a phase retardation vs. voltageprofile. This utilizes the fact that the transmitted intensity betweencrossed polarizers is given by EQN. 4,

$\begin{matrix}{{I_{\bot} = {I_{o}\left( {\sin \frac{\delta}{2}} \right)}^{2}},} & \left( {{EQN}.\mspace{14mu} 4} \right)\end{matrix}$

with δ being the phase retardation of the LC sample. This transmittedintensity between parallel polarizers is similarly given by EQN. 5,

$\begin{matrix}{I_{||} = {{I_{o}\left( {\cos \frac{\delta}{2}} \right)}^{2}.}} & \left( {{EQN}.\mspace{14mu} 5} \right)\end{matrix}$

The phase retardation of the sample at a particular voltage, then, isgiven by the transmission ratio in these two plots, as

|δ|=Nπ+2 tan⁻¹ √{square root over (I _(⊥) /I _(∥))}, N=0,2,4, . . .,  (EQN. 6)

or

|δ|=(N+1)π−2 tan⁻¹ √{square root over (I _(⊥) /I _(∥))}, N=1,3,5, . . .,  (EQN. 7)

where N is the peak number in the TV curve (counted up from thehigh-voltage end of the curve). When the cell is almost completelyswitched, N=0.

FIG. 7 shows the phase retardation vs. voltage for the prepared cells.In this case, the sample polymerized at 0 V shows no significantdifferences from the cell filled with pure LC—neither the thresholdvoltage nor the saturation voltage is noticeably different. Thisindicates that the RM layer is sufficiently thin, e.g., on the order ofseveral hundred nanometers or less, so as to have no effect on the bulkLC. In the case of the sample polymerized at 20 V, though, the zero voltretardation has dropped and the threshold voltage has also decreased,indicating that the pretilt of the cell has increased. These results arevery similar to the case of an infinitesimally thin RM layer, shown inFIG. 5C, indicating that the RM layer is quite thin.

IV. Photostability Testing

To test the ability of the polymer layer to stabilize the alignmentgenerated using a photoalignment layer, additional 7 μm cells wereconstructed in which one substrate was coated with a rubbed polyimidealignment layer and the other was coated with a spun-on BYphotoalignment layer. The BY was applied to the glass by mixing the dyeat 2% concentration by weight into DMF, then vortexing for 1 minute tocreate a uniform solution. The glass was cleaned via ultrasonic andUV/O3 cleaning just prior to the application of the dye solution, whichwas passed through a 1 μm filter as it was applied. The entire substratewas coated and the sample was spun at 1500 rpm for 30 seconds to createan even dye layer coating. The substrate was then baked for 120° C. for40 minutes to evaporate any remaining solvent.

Test samples, once assembled, were exposed to about 50 mW/cm² polarizedblue light for 7 minutes using the same exposure setup described abovefor microcavities. This exposure was incident on the back of thephotoaligned substrate and with the polarization direction aligned withthe rubbed polyimide alignment direction. This exposure results in anapproximately 90-degree twist with the photoalignment directionperpendicular to the rubbed alignment.

This twisted cell configuration provides for fast visual determinationof the degradation of alignment. When the cell is initially fabricated,the anchoring energies of the rubbed-polyimide and of the photoalignmentlayer are both sufficiently strong, so the twisted LC directorconfiguration is observed. If the photoalignment layer is rewritten to anew angle, then the twist angle through the cell will change. If thephotoalignment layer is degraded, the rubbed polyimide alignmentdirection will dominate and the cell will lose its twisted directorconfiguration completely. The director field in the cell will then beco-planar and aligned with the axis determined by the polyimide. Whenviewed between crossed polarizers, twisted regions will appear brightwhile non-twisted planar regions will appear dark. When viewed betweenparallel polarizers, non-twisted planar regions will appear bright whiletwisted regions will appear dark.

The samples were filled with either pure BL006 liquid crystal or thesame 1.5% wt RM257/BL006 mixture as described above, with storage andpolymerization at 0V occurring as previously described. Forphotostability testing, samples were exposed to the same blue LED usedto align them. In one case, samples were exposed to 20 mW/cm² polarizedlight at 45 degrees to the original photoexposure direction; thisapproximates the highest level of illumination expected on the thermalpixels. In another case, samples were exposed to unpolarized light of120 mW/cm². In this case, unpolarized light was used so as to simulateflux five times higher than utilized in the thermal pixel application.

FIG. 8A shows that samples containing pure BL006 liquid crystal showed acomplete loss of their original photoalignment direction in the lowintensity polarized exposure. As shown in FIG. 8A, samples are filledwith pure BL006 (a) before exposure or after (b) 50 minutes, (c) 100minutes, (d) 150 minutes, and (e) 200 minutes of exposure to about 20mW/cm² polarized blue light oriented at 45 degrees to the photoalignmentaxis. Before images are shown between crossed (left) and parallel(right) polarizers. After images are shown between parallel (left) andcrossed (center) polarizers as well as polarizers oriented at 45 degrees(right). For all samples, the alignment was rewritten within the first50 minutes of exposure. Between polarizers oriented at 45 degrees (thenewly written twist angle of the cell), the sample exhibits a somewhatdark twist state. However, as the sample is exposed for longer, eventhis alignment is lost, with the sample failing to twist light at all.The photoalignment layer has been completely degraded and the intendedalignment of the sample has been lost.

Samples with pure BL006 liquid crystal also showed a rapid degradationof their photoalignment layer in the high intensity unpolarized case.These samples exhibited planar alignment after less than 20 minutes ofexposure to this condition. On the other hand, samples which containedthe RM-stabilization layer exhibited a high degree of stability. In boththe low intensity polarized condition and the high intensity unpolarizedcondition, samples maintained their 90-degree twisted alignment for 3weeks with no sign of degradation in their alignment, as shown in FIG.8B.

The electro-optic response of these samples was also considered. In thiscase, a sample filled with pure BL006 which had not been exposed, aswell as the sample filled with 1.5% wt RM257 in BL006 which had beenexposed to about 120 mW/cm² unpolarized light for 3 weeks, wereutilized. Samples were placed between crossed polarizers with theentrance and exit LC director aligned with the entrance and exitpolarizer, respectively. TV curves for the samples taken in thisconfiguration are shown in FIG. 9. There is no significant difference inthe electro-optic response of these two cells indicating that, not onlydoes the RM layer have little to no effect on this response, but alsothat this TV response remains stable against extended light exposure.

V. Demonstrating RM-Stabilized Photoalignment in Microcavities

In this section, the previous results are confirmed by demonstratingRM-stabilized photoalignment in microcavities. A microcavity sample ontransmissive substrate was prepared as described above, with the LCmixed with 3% wt RM257 (with 10% wt Irgacure 651) in BL006 liquidcrystal which had been vortexed for 3 minutes just prior to filling themicrocavity. Note that the concentration of the RM was increased to 3%wt in this case because the microcavity samples had a thickness of 2-μmrather than the 5-μm thick cells utilized in Section III. Samples werethen stored and polymerized at 0 V as described in Section III. FIG. 10shows this sample on the microscope between crossed polarizers at fiftytimes in both the bright state and the dark state. Again, this sampleexhibits uniform alignment. Using these images to calculate theintensity of a cavity in both its bright and dark states results in acontrast ratio of 24:1, which could be increased.

Experimental Verification of RM Polymerization and RM Photostability

A number of liquid crystal cells were prepared to verify polymerizationof the RM layer or to test the photostability of cells with thispolymerization. The cells were fabricated simultaneously; from thecleaning and cutting of the glass through to the fabrication ofindividual cells, all steps were conducted in a single day to keepsubstrates as clean as possible. Cells were either planar cells withrubbed-polyimide on both substrates or twist cells with rubbed-polyimideon one side and photoalignment on the other. The range of thicknessesfor the planar cells were from 10-20 μm. For the twist cells, thethicknesses range from 6-15 μm.

Some cells were filled with pure BL006 liquid crystal. The rest werefilled with mixtures of RM257 reactive mesogen (with ˜10% photoinitiatorIrgacure 651) with BL006 liquid crystal with the reactive mesogen mixedat 0.9% wt, 1.2% wt, or 1.5% wt. This results in a range of RM layerthicknesses on the substrate surfaces. After filling, all cells werestored in the dark for at least 24 hours to allow for phase separationof the RM. Then, cells were polymerized by UV light for 10 minutes; inthe case of twist cells, this exposure occurred from the photoalignedside of the cell.

For this investigation, the planar cells were polymerized under a numberof different conditions. Cells were either polymerized at 0 V or with a60 Hz 100 V AC voltage applied. In the case of the high voltage, theliquid crystals in the bulk of the cell should be homeotropic (normal tothe cell surface). Molecules directly next to the substrate shouldremain planar; the planar alignment should decay rapidly from the cellsurface. In the region with polymer, this decaying alignment will belocked in by the polymerization. Once the voltage is turned off, theliquid crystal orientation on the boundary between the polymerizedregion and the bulk liquid crystal will become the effective pretilt ofthe liquid crystal cell and will be carried through the bulk. Bycomparing cells polymerized at 100V with those cured at 0V, one shouldgain a general understanding of the thickness and uniformity of thepolymer layer within the cell. Additionally, two different exposureintensities were used, controlled by varying the distance of the samplefrom the UV source. These intensities are referred to below as “low” or“high” intensity.

After the cells were polymerized, each was placed between parallelpolarizers with the principle axis of the cell oriented at 45 degreesfrom the polarizer transmission axis. The transmission through thesystem (of 439.5 nm light) was measured at applied voltages from 0 to5V. The plots of transmission versus voltage for a number of these cellsare shown in FIGS. 11A-11C. The cell was slightly tilted during themeasurement; this results in curves of small amplitude, with thethickness through the cell lacking in uniformity across the measurementregion.

These curves provide an indication of the quality of the polymer layer.In particular, a lower threshold voltage indicates a higher pretiltangle, which should appear in any cell exposed at 100 V. In all but onecell exposed at 0 V, the threshold appears to be somewhere between 1.5 Vand 2.0 V. The threshold is somewhat similar for all of the 100 V cellswith 0.9% wt RM and for the 100V cell with 1.2% wt RM which was exposedto “low” intensity UV. Without being bound to any particular theory,this suggests that the polymer network in the 0.9% wt cells is eithertoo thin or insufficient to create any sort of pretilt. The lack ofpretilt in the “low” intensity cell with 1.2% wt RM suggests that thenetwork in these cells is now sufficiently strong, but the “low”intensity exposure condition does not completely polymerize the layer(perhaps due to a lack of absorption by the lower concentration ofphotoinitiator). In the cells with 1.5% wt RM, the 100 V cells exhibitminimal threshold, indicating a high pretilt angle as is expected; thisconcentration produces a sufficiently thick and uniform layer.

The differences among these cells can also be seen through visualinspection. In this case, the cell is placed between parallelpolarizers, again with principle axis at 45 degrees to the transmissionaxis of the polarizers. Cells are viewed normal or tipped up to almostnormal between the polarizers, as shown in FIGS. 12A-12B. An examplecell from each RM concentration is shown; where all cells shown werepolymerized at 100V. The brighter areas in the tipped-up orientationindicate a pretilt. The 0.9% wt cell shows no significant change incoloration, suggesting little to no pretilt. The 1.2% wt cell shows aslight increase in coloration while the 1.5% wt cell shows a significantincrease in coloration. These results are all in agreement with theresults shown in the TV curves.

The concentration of RM affects the ability to create a uniform polymerlayer on the surfaces. While a polymer layer may exist in the cells with0.9% wt, it is not sufficient to create a pretilt when polymerized athigh voltage. The polymer layer begins to become sufficient at 1.2% wtand is well established at 1.5% wt. Based on these results, cellsutilized in the photostability investigation were polymerized with the“high” intensity UV to create the strongest possible polymer layer ateach of the given concentrations.

For another investigation, the hybrid twist cells were used, withphotoalignment on one substrate and rubbed-polyimide on the other. Cellswere polymerized at the “high” intensity UV discussed in the previoussection. To test the photostability of these cells, they were exposed tounpolarized blue light (447 nm) at either 3 mW/cm² or 15 mW/cm² (10mW/cm² for the case of cells with pure BL006). Three different exposuresetups were used; two of these utilized a Tri-Star LED with a foildiffuser while the third utilized a single LED with collimator/diffuser.Two cells were exposed to each LED at a time (one at the high intensity,one at the low intensity). To maintain reliability of results, cells foreach RM concentration were exposed using each of these three exposurestations.

FIGS. 13A and 13B show RM-stabilized planar cells between polarizedcrossed at +45 degrees and −45 degrees, respectively, after anadditional exposure, in the liquid crystal state, to blue-lightpolarized at 45 degrees. The images show that the cells transmit light,which indicate that the upper and lower cell surfaces align the liquidcrystal material in different directions. To create these cells, eachRM-stabilized cell was placed between crossed polarizers in theliquid-crystalline state (this may not work if the liquid crystal isisotropic). Each cell was then exposed to additional blue lightpolarized at 45 degrees with respect to the original photoalignmentdirection.

CONCLUSION

A technique to generate a stable alignment utilizing a photodefinabledye and a surface-localized polymer layer has been described herein.This alignment technique is especially useful for LC applications inuniquely challenging geometry, including microcavities in photonicdevices like LC thermal imagers. It has been successfully shown that anon-degrading photoalignment layer can be infused into these fullyfabricated microcavities.

A low cost, robust liquid crystal alignment layer whose alignmentdirection and stabilization can be done after a cell or cavity iscreated, is demonstrated. The method can be used even if the only oneentry point to the cavity is available. The procedure does not requireany special coating processes such as spin coating, and does not requirea high temperature bake or the difficult rub process needed for thecommon polyimide alignment layers.

One aspect of the disclosed methods is the stabilization of aphotoaligned azo dye layer with an ultrathin reactive mesogen that layerthat forms without special process steps. Surprisingly, a very smallamount of reactive mesogen, mixed with the liquid crystal, may have avery significant effect on the stability of the azo dye layer. It hasbeen demonstrated that this surface-polymer-stabilized photoalignmentlayer exhibits incredibly high resilience to light exposure (and isthermally stable even without the polymer-stabilization layer).

The methods described herein have a number of benefits. Stablephotoalignment layers may be prepared exclusively using commerciallyavailable materials, without complicated or expensive process steps.Additionally, the robust photoalignment layer created with polarizedlight exposure is able to survive subsequent photoexposure for thepolymerization of the reactive mesogen layer. Thus, the methods reducethe necessity for strict process control and can even allow for the useof the same exposure setup for both the patterning of the alignmentlayer, and the polymer stabilization of it.

The polymer-stabilization layer can be introduced into the microcavitiesby mixing it with the LCs at low weight concentration. A polymer layerintroduced into a cell in this manner is able to naturally localize in athin region near the substrate surfaces. This layer significantlyimproves the robustness of the alignment against subsequent lightexposure, regardless of any degradation of the underlying photoalignmentlayer. The alignment process described in this here offers versatileways to expand the field of LC photonic devices.

While various inventive embodiments have been described and illustratedherein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision avariety of other means and/or structures for performing the functionand/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantagesdescribed herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications isdeemed to be within the scope of the inventive embodiments describedherein. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciatethat all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations describedherein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters,dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon thespecific application or applications for which the inventive teachingsis/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able toascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalentsto the specific inventive embodiments described herein. It is,therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presentedby way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claimsand equivalents thereto, inventive embodiments may be practicedotherwise than as specifically described and claimed. Inventiveembodiments of the present disclosure are directed to each individualfeature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein.In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems,articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems,articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent,is included within the inventive scope of the present disclosure.

The above-described embodiments can be implemented in any of numerousways. For example, embodiments of designing and making the technologydisclosed herein may be implemented using hardware, software or acombination thereof. When implemented in software, the software code canbe executed on any suitable processor or collection of processors,whether provided in a single computer or distributed among multiplecomputers.

Further, it should be appreciated that a computer may be embodied in anyof a number of forms, such as a rack-mounted computer, a desktopcomputer, a laptop computer, or a tablet computer. Additionally, acomputer may be embedded in a device not generally regarded as acomputer but with suitable processing capabilities, including a PersonalDigital Assistant (PDA), a smart phone or any other suitable portable orfixed electronic device.

Also, a computer may have one or more input and output devices. Thesedevices can be used, among other things, to present a user interface.Examples of output devices that can be used to provide a user interfaceinclude printers or display screens for visual presentation of outputand speakers or other sound generating devices for audible presentationof output. Examples of input devices that can be used for a userinterface include keyboards, and pointing devices, such as mice, touchpads, and digitizing tablets. As another example, a computer may receiveinput information through speech recognition or in other audible format.

Such computers may be interconnected by one or more networks in anysuitable form, including a local area network or a wide area network,such as an enterprise network, and intelligent network (IN) or theInternet. Such networks may be based on any suitable technology and mayoperate according to any suitable protocol and may include wirelessnetworks, wired networks or fiber optic networks.

The various methods or processes (e.g., of designing and making thetechnology disclosed above) outlined herein may be coded as softwarethat is executable on one or more processors that employ any one of avariety of operating systems or platforms. Additionally, such softwaremay be written using any of a number of suitable programming languagesand/or programming or scripting tools, and also may be compiled asexecutable machine language code or intermediate code that is executedon a framework or virtual machine.

In this respect, various inventive concepts may be embodied as acomputer readable storage medium (or multiple computer readable storagemedia) (e.g., a computer memory, one or more floppy discs, compactdiscs, optical discs, magnetic tapes, flash memories, circuitconfigurations in Field Programmable Gate Arrays or other semiconductordevices, or other non-transitory medium or tangible computer storagemedium) encoded with one or more programs that, when executed on one ormore computers or other processors, perform methods that implement thevarious embodiments of the invention discussed above. The computerreadable medium or media can be transportable, such that the program orprograms stored thereon can be loaded onto one or more differentcomputers or other processors to implement various aspects of thepresent invention as discussed above.

The terms “program” or “software” are used herein in a generic sense torefer to any type of computer code or set of computer-executableinstructions that can be employed to program a computer or otherprocessor to implement various aspects of embodiments as discussedabove. Additionally, it should be appreciated that according to oneaspect, one or more computer programs that when executed perform methodsof the present invention need not reside on a single computer orprocessor, but may be distributed in a modular fashion amongst a numberof different computers or processors to implement various aspects of thepresent invention.

Computer-executable instructions may be in many forms, such as programmodules, executed by one or more computers or other devices. Generally,program modules include routines, programs, objects, components, datastructures, etc. that perform particular tasks or implement particularabstract data types. Typically the functionality of the program modulesmay be combined or distributed as desired in various embodiments.

Also, data structures may be stored in computer-readable media in anysuitable form. For simplicity of illustration, data structures may beshown to have fields that are related through location in the datastructure. Such relationships may likewise be achieved by assigningstorage for the fields with locations in a computer-readable medium thatconvey relationship between the fields. However, any suitable mechanismmay be used to establish a relationship between information in fields ofa data structure, including through the use of pointers, tags or othermechanisms that establish relationship between data elements.

Also, various inventive concepts may be embodied as one or more methods,of which an example has been provided. The acts performed as part of themethod may be ordered in any suitable way. Accordingly, embodiments maybe constructed in which acts are performed in an order different thanillustrated, which may include performing some acts simultaneously, eventhough shown as sequential acts in illustrative embodiments.

All definitions, as defined and used herein, should be understood tocontrol over dictionary definitions, definitions in documentsincorporated by reference, and/or ordinary meanings of the definedterms.

The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in thespecification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to thecontrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”

The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in theclaims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements soconjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some casesand disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with“and/or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” ofthe elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be presentother than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause,whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified.Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B”, when usedin conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer,in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other thanB); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elementsother than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionallyincluding other elements); etc.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should beunderstood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. Forexample, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall beinterpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, butalso including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and,optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated tothe contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when usedin the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactlyone element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or”as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusivealternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded byterms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or“exactly one of” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims,shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “atleast one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should beunderstood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more ofthe elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including atleast one of each and every element specifically listed within the listof elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the listof elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally bepresent other than the elements specifically identified within the listof elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether relatedor unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as anon-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “atleast one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) canrefer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including morethan one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements otherthan B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally includingmore than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elementsother than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionallyincluding more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including morethan one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitionalphrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,”“containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are tobe understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limitedto. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consistingessentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases,respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual ofPatent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

1. A liquid crystal (LC) cell, comprising: a structure defining a microcavity; LC material disposed within the microcavity; a dichroic dye layer disposed on an inner surface of the microcavity; and a polymerized reactive mesogen layer, disposed on and aligned with the dichroic dye layer, to align the LC material with respect to the dichroic dye layer.
 2. The LC cell of claim 1, wherein the structure comprises a substrate.
 3. The LC cell of claim 1, wherein the dichroic dye layer has a thickness of up to about 10 nm.
 4. The LC cell of claim 1, wherein the dichroic dye layer comprises Brilliant Yellow azo dye.
 5. The LC cell of claim 1, wherein the polymerized layer has a thickness of up to about 100 nm.
 6. The LC cell of claim 1, wherein the polymerized layer comprises reactive mesogen.
 7. A method of aligning liquid crystal material to an inner surface of a microcavity, the method comprising: infusing anisotropic dye into the microcavity so as to coat the interior surface of the microcavity with the anisotropic dye; illuminating the anisotropic dye with polarized light so as to form an anisotropic dye layer aligned with respect to the inner surface of the microcavity; infusing reactive mesogen and liquid crystal material into the microcavity; and illuminating the reactive mesogen at a wavelength selected to cause polymerization of the layer of reactive mesogen material so as to form a polymerized reactive mesogen layer aligning the liquid crystal material with respect to the anisotropic dye layer.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein infusing the anisotropic dye comprises infusing at least one of an azo dye or a dye substantially similar to an azo compound.
 9. The method of claim 7, wherein infusing the anisotropic dye comprises: disposing the microcavity in a dye solution comprising the anisotropic dye and a solvent; and heating the microcavity so as to evaporate the solvent.
 10. The method of claim 7, wherein infusing the reactive mesogen and the liquid crystal material comprises infusing RM257.
 11. The method of claim 7, wherein infusing the reactive mesogen and the liquid crystal material comprises: infusing a mixture of the reactive mesogen, the liquid crystal material, and a photoinitiator into the microcavity.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the mixture of the reactive mesogen, the liquid crystal material, and the photoinitiator has a weight ratio of reactive mesogen to liquid crystal material to photoinitiator of about 1.35 to 98.50 to 0.15.
 13. The method of claim 11, further comprising: heating and mixing the mixture of the reactive mesogen, the liquid crystal material, and the photoinitiator prior to infusing the mixture into the microcavity.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein infusing the reactive mesogen and the liquid crystal material further comprises: allowing the reactive mesogen to separate from the liquid crystal material before illuminating the reactive mesogen.
 15. The method of claim 7, wherein illuminating the reactive mesogen further comprises: applying at least one voltage across at least a portion of the microcavity while illuminating the reactive mesogen so as to lock in alignment of the polymerized reactive mesogen layer with respect to the anisotropic dye layer.
 16. The method of claim 7, wherein applying the at least one voltage comprises: applying a first voltage across a first portion of the microcavity and a second voltage across a second portion of the microcavity so as to create spatially varying alignment of the anisotropic dye to the liquid crystal material.
 17. The method of claim 7, wherein the polymerized reactive mesogen layer has a thickness of less than approximately 100 nanometers.
 18. The method of claim 7, further comprising: infusing a photoinitiator into the microcavity before illuminating the reactive mesogen with ultraviolet light.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein infusing the photoinitiator comprises infusing Irgacure
 651. 